Year:

2020

Showing: 121 - 130 of 290 RESULTS

Drumstick Tree – Moringa oleifera

Print this entry

I was talking with Michael HindmarshSTFC, one of our members who’s a Vet down at Gerringong, south of Sydney about the Moringa as I’ve been wanting to do an article on this tree for a while so he sent me a note from the report he wrote while on a Churchill Fellowship to the UK & Europe in 1992 titled “The Biomanipulation of Blue-Green Algae” so those of you who have dams with this problem might like to have a chat with him. Ph: 02 4234 0281 He’s going to write an article on it for us. Michael studied Vet Science at Qld Uni between 1971-75. 

“The Horseradish Tree is being studied by Dr. Bill Grant and Mr. John Sutherland of the University of Leicester. A special role of this tree is growing in sewage wastes and producing seeds which can flocculate turbid water. John Sutherland is establishing pilot plants in Africa where landholders can grow the seeds then grind them to clean their water supplies. Bill has found a thousand fold reduction in bacteria from water samples treated with a meal from these seeds. Here is a new permaculture system capable of growing on sewage, producing pods for human consumption or a natural water flocculant.”

From the net: The idea of using moringa tree seeds to clear water came from the country of Sudan. The women there learned to use the seeds to clarify water from the muddy Nile River. The method works like this: When added to water, the crushed seeds attract particles of dirt that are floating in the water including certain disease organisms. The dirt attaches to the seeds and they fall together to the bottom of the jar. Then you pour off the good water to drink. However you must learn to follow all the steps carefully if you are going to clarify water with moringa seeds. The dirtier the water the more seeds you will need. After you have the correct number of seeds there are a number of steps including crushing the seeds, adding water to make a paste, shaking, straining, shaking again, and so on. If you don’t do all the steps you won’t have clean water. It’s been two hours since adding the seeds to the water and it’s clean. When people can’t boil dirty, polluted water, they can use moringa seeds.

George found the following from Aisha El-Awady:

The resilient, fast growing Moringa tree is packed with so many vitamins and nutrients and has such a high nutritional value that it has been rightly dubbed by some as the miracle tree. All parts of this scruffy looking tree are edible; the leaves can be eaten raw, cooked like spinach or made into a powder that can be added to sauces, soups or chowders. The new leaves have a tendency to appear towards the end of the dry season when few other sources of green leafy vegetables are available. The young, green pods can be eaten whole and are comparable in taste to asparagus. The older pods can be used for their seeds, which can be prepared as peas or roasted and eaten like peanuts. The flowers which bloom around 8 months after the tree is planted, can be eaten fried and have the taste and texture of mushrooms. In Hawaii, the flowers are used to make a tea that cures colds. In addition to this, the flowers are a year- round source of nectar and can be used by beekeepers. When the pods mature and turn brown, the seeds can be removed and pressed to extract high quality oil similar to olive oil rich in oleic acid (73%). The mature seed contains about 40% oil. The oil, which is known as Ben oil, can be used for cooking, lubrication, in soaps, lamps and perfumes. The oil was highly valued by ancient Greeks, Romans and Egyptians and was used in perfumes and for skin protection; it was also used in Europe in the 19th century for the same purpose and was imported from the West Indies. The taproot of young trees can be used to make a spice resembling horseradish when vinegar and salt are added to it. Not only is the Moringa oleifera tree extraordinary in that all parts of the tree are edible, but the most amazing aspect of the tree is its exceptionally high nutritional value. The leaves of the Moringa tree are an excellent source of vitamin A (four times the amount in carrots), the raw leaves are rich in vitamin C (seven times the amount in oranges), and they are also a good source of vitamin B and other minerals. The leaves are also an outstanding source of calcium (four times the amount in milk), protein (twice the amount in milk), and potassium (three time the amount in bananas). The content of iron is very good as well and the leaves have purportedly been used for treating anaemia in the Philippines. The content of amino acids such as methionine and cystine is also high. Carbohydrates, fats and phosphorous content are low making this one of the finest plant foods to be found.

Africa’s Solution to Malnutrition?      These qualities have made the Moringa oleifera tree a candidate in the fight against malnutrition. A group of health workers from the Church World Service have been utilizing this highly nutritious and fast growing tree as a means to cure and prevent malnutrition in infants, pregnant and lactating women as an alternative to the classic and expensive condiments usually used such as whole milk powder, sugar, vegetable oil, and sometimes peanut butter. It takes around ten days to see an improvement in malnourished infants when Moringa leaves are used whereas it takes months for recovery with conventional methods. According to Dr. Lowell Fuglie, the West Africa representative of the Church World Service who used the Moringa tree as a base for a nutrition program, “for a child aged 1-3, a 100 g serving of fresh cooked leaves would provide all his daily requirements of calcium, about 75% of his iron and half his protein needs, as well as important amounts of potassium, B vitamins, copper and all the essential amino acids. As little as 20 grams of leaves would provide a child with all the vitamins A and C he needs.”

“For pregnant and breast-feeding women, Moringa leaves and pods can do much to preserve the mother’s health and pass on strength to the fetus or nursing child. One 100 g portion of leaves could provide a woman with over a third of her daily need of calcium and give her important quantities of iron, protein, copper, sulfur and B-vitamins.”

 “One rounded tablespoon (8 g) of leaf powder will satisfy about 14% of the protein, 40% of the calcium, and 23% of the iron and nearly all the vitamin A needs for a child aged 1-3. Six rounded spoonfuls of leaf powder will satisfy nearly all of a woman’s daily iron and calcium needs during pregnancy and breast-feeding.”

Water Purification    The Moringa tree has other extraordinary qualities; the powder from ground Moringa seeds and the presscake left over from oil extraction have the ability to clear murky water as it acts as a coagulant which attaches to particulate matter and bacteria in the water and falls to the bottom of the container. The purified water can then be poured out and boiled. This method has been used for centuries domestically and has recently been tried commercially and was found to be equally efficient to, if not surpassing, alum which is usually used and at a fraction of the cost.

Practical Uses      The bark of the tree can be used to make mats or rope and in tanning hides. The gum from the cut tree trunks is used in calico printing and in some medicines. The wood can be used to make a blue dye and can also be used as firewood. The flowers and roots of Moringa trees contain a powerful antibiotic known as pterygospermin, which also has fungicidal properties. An effective plant growth hormone can be extracted from fresh leaves and has been found to increase crop yields by up to 25-30%, and the leaves can also be used as a green manure to enrich farmlands.

Mother’s Best Friend The family Moringaceae contains 14 species of Moringa trees. Moringa oleifera, is a drought tolerant tree, and is the best-known member of this family. It is native to sub-Himalayan regions of northern India and is distributed all over the world in tropics and sub tropics. Moringa stenopetala, which produces larger seed and leaves than M. oleifera, inhabits Ethiopia and northern Kenya. M. peregrina is native in Egypt, Sudan, and the Arabian Peninsula and as far north as the Dead Sea. M. ovalifolia is found in Angola and Namibia. The tree has many different names. It is called the drumstick tree in India due to the long pods, or the horseradish tree as the roots may be used to make a spice resembling horseradish. In some parts of the world it is known as ‘Mother’s best friend’. In Senegal, it is known as Nebeday, which means “Never Die,” because the tree is outstandingly hearty. It is also known as the Ben Oil tree; the Benzolive tree in Haiti; Marum in Thailand; Yoruba in Nigeria and Malunggay in the Philippines.                           www.islamonline.net/English/Science/2003/02/article06.shtml

Sources:  Sreenivasan, Jyotsna, 2000:The Drumstick Tree A Natural Multi-Vitamin.

NCCCUSA, 2000: Expedition to Distribute 20,000 Moringa Tree Seeds in Tanzania.

ECHO. Moringa, Nature’s Medicine Cabinet:  ECHO Moringa and Carotene.

ECHO. Effectiveness of a Moringa Seed Extract in Treating a Skin Infection.

Fuglie, Lowell. New Uses of Moringa Studied in Nicaragua. ECHO.

ECHO. The Moringa Tree, Moringa oleifera, is Called Mother’s Best Friend.

ECHO. Using Moringa on a Larger Scale;    Portalmarket, Moringa Tree Powder.

Gardner, Ellen, 2002: Moringa tree has many uses, From Food to Firewood. Yumasun.

Price, Martin L., 1985: Fruits & Others: Articles The Moringa Tree. Tropical-Seeds.

Willi says

She heard that it is rich in B17 which is believed by some to be an anti cancer nutrient. In Indonesia all  parts of the plant are always cooked. Its Indonesian names are Klentang or Kelor. It was used to make a soup with Chicken to help recovery from sickness. The ingredients were leaves, pods, flowers, tamarind & chicken. The fibres from the pods had to be removed from the broth after cooking.

Article compiled by Sheryl Backhouse

Living with our furred and feathered friends in the backyard by Ron Turner

Print this entry

I would like to quickly sum up my experiences in the bird and bat problem area by stating that when I wished to invest in horticulture on my property at Gympie, I grew macadamia nuts. As a result of listening to the problems of rural people over many years, offering advice and evaluating results, there is only one device of which I am aware that will give horticulturists and the smaller enthusiast protection from birds, flying foxes and possums, and that is netting. The claims of success of a particular device in preventing problem species of fauna accessing a fruit crop may, I suspect, relate more to the availability of an alternative non-netted food source. With the loss of a large scale eucalypt blossom event intrastate or even interstate due to seasonal conditions such as heavy rains, or drought or fire and the birds and bats are hungry, netting is the only sure way to enjoy your fruit. The problems associated with fauna and commercial or back yard crops are well known. In 1992 Dr. Mary Bomford was appointed as National Bird Pest Co-ordinator. She collated and published a bibliography of 561 bird pest research papers from around the world and compiled a list of bird pests from across Australia plus a list of then current bird pest research activities (Bureau of Rural Resources Working Paper WP/S/92).My own personal experiences at home trying various methods to keep birds and flying foxes off various fruits has been reinforced by the experiences of growers relying on one or more of the multitude of devices that whirr, whizz, bang or pop and that is birds and animals generally become habituated to such devices quickly and will learn to ignore them within a few hours to a few days. This was also the consensus of findings from researchers both in Australia and around the world. For example, I was to learn that my early use of electric fences to deter wallabies from my $10 a tree macadamias had a fundamental error. I failed to energise those wires on the day they were erected. I can picture the local wallabies sniffing the dead wire that first night, determining it posed no threat, and ignoring it for ever after. If you wish to employ various devices as aids to repel the invaders then you will have to be active in moving them frequently or reapplying time and again. The main thrust of experience here is that once the problem species has found your fruit and brought along the friends and relations, it is too late. You must be active with your plan and deterrents in hand well before your crop ripens. If you do not have a net, then you must consider failure. I, frankly, do not have the patience, or time, to be continually applying or moving a mixture of deterrents or repellents and our time-tested remedy is to erect netting over individual trees in our mixed orchard as required. This gives us protection from the fruit piercing moth, and a degree of protection from the Queensland fruit fly. I believe it is important to have a plan of action well before your particular crop matures and that plan should be under consideration at the planting phase. Included in the plan should be a personal attitudinal review whether you want the total crop, or are prepared to share some with our fauna. I personally find it difficult to sympathise entirely with growers who claim they did not forsee problems and now see lethal methods as the only way to protect their crop, or complain loudly when they cannot obtain a permit to destroy or move the offending fauna. Society, as a whole, has generally moved on past the gun and poison pot. Whether you plant some decoy crop to ripen just before your fruit, whether you work towards covering the costs of netting and perhaps cheaper types of frames to hold that netting up, or whether (as I tend to do with, say, mangoes) consider the luxury of eating fresh tree-ripened fruit may not be practical. Our choice often involves consideration of the rapidly increasing risk of loss of individual pieces of fruit combined with insect damage, or to pick when fauna are showing interest. While not all fruit will develop that delicious home grown flavour after picking, the mango, as a current example, will continue to ripen after picking. For me it may become a matter if I can tolerate my local brush turkey – for it is just one of 150 different birds I have recorded on our property and I like to have them around – or whether it is getting more fruit than I am comfortable with. I haven’t eaten, or tried to grow – a home grown banana for some years now. I get more of a thrill in seeing the king parrots and knowing the blossom bat and local sugar glider are probably enjoying the flowers and fruit.

Electric ‘Fencing’   Sheryl asked me about the use of electric wires to deter invaders. This method relies on a series of closely spaced and tensioned wires above the crop. The method utilises a bi-polar electric fence energiser that pulses much faster that an ordinary electric fence energiser and has three terminals (instead of the normal two); positive, negative and earth. If, say, 1000 volts is carried through each wire a bird or bat coming into contact with any two wires would receive a 2000 volt non lethal shock. This method failed in commercial stone fruit orchards during a ‘bad’ flying fox year. The flying foxes were said to have ‘yelped’ when they came into contact with the wires, tumbled through and commenced feeding. Both birds and flying foxes learned to access the orchard via the undefended walls. Note that the support structure for this method is more than that required for overhead netting. This grower obtained a measure of control by applying temporary bird ban netting. Another NSW grower reported using a similar overhead wire barrier method without electricity saying that the flying foxes found no difficulty accessing the fruit through the wires but seemed to have a slight problem in leaving the orchard.

For those with a leaning towards using non lethal electricity some deep thinking is required. What is the offending target species? In back yards or small orchards this may involve a wide range of birds, especially lorikeets and honey eaters, even satin or regent bower birds, etc. What gap between wires is to be employed? What is to be done around the sides? What is your legal position if someone is adversely affected by inadvertent contact with the wires, particularly those people with heart pacemakers? Tree limbs falling may require a daily check of the system; heavy grass growth may mean extra maintenance with grass cutting or weedicide spraying.  My understanding is that a permit may now be required to operate such a system.

Some considerations for those who have an electric fence energiser may provide inspiration:

  • If you have an orchard or vinyard situation with no other trees in the vicinity, provide some artificial perches for birds to utilize. If one was to use two bare wires held about a centimetre apart by insulators along those perches and connect them to the energiser the bird would receive a non-lethal shock
  • Electrified rods were being trialled in the USA some years ago for similar use in a vinyard and initial reports were said at the time to be encouraging. However, I believe birds will become habituated and learn to avoid the perches
  • Another device used with an energiser caused an old fluorescent tube wired into the line to flash with each pulse of electricity. This would need to be moved often, or allowed to move in the breeze to hopefully create moving shadows. It was also a quick check to determine whether the electric fence unit was working efficiently
  • I have read of  a hot wire connected to a spike embedded in river red gums being successful in repelling camels from chewing bark
  • If you don’t have an energiser and are seriously considering same it will probably be cheaper and more secure to mount the unit at the source of 240 volt supply and run a lead or hot wire to the source of action rather than purchase an energiser, solar cell and battery with its risk of theft. The major component of electric fencing is an efficient earth at least a metre into the ground; expect the voltage of the unit to fall a little under very dry conditions. An added ‘must have’ is some type of voltage tester.

N.B.      Dogs react quite severely to contact with a ‘hot wire’.

             Echidnas are readily killed by electrified wires placed close to the ground.

             Never electrify barb wire.

Noise    Research has shown that intermittent noise can actually lead to even more damage within an orchard as the birds or bats can leave a piece of fruit and return to  untouched fruit within the same or a different tree. Audible devices should not be used when likely to offend neighbours. Enforcement agencies tend to be ‘reactive’ in approach and cannot now afford to ignore complaints. Noise can be a serious problem in any noise emitting device unless one has extremely sympathetic neighbours. I recall bringing a noise emitting bird scarer from Victoria many years ago and trialling it on a commercial strawberry farm as the owner looked like losing her year’s income. I understand the local council sought the advice of the Mildura Shire Council about possible complaints of noise in their area. The device seemed to work locally but neighbours took offence and stole the control unit. Model planes and helicopters could also be employed either by the owner or a model enthusiast but these are very noisy and need to be well away from neighbours. Many years ago a Victorian featured a model aeroplane look-alike hawk for $2000. I know of large scale orchards using real planes to repel birds. Other loud ‘scaring’ noises such as gas guns, hail cannons, sirens, barking dogs or shooting were the cause of increasing complaint to departmental and council officers. Birds and flying foxes become habituated to these noises. I quote the example I was given of the willy-wagtail nesting in an operating gas gun. Other less offensive noises can be generated by stringing a length of tape tightly between two anchor points. Wind will cause a vibration sound. Mine seemed to protect my vegetable garden for a short while, until the wind dropped! I had similar luck when the wind dropped and my ‘look-alike’ flying hawk dropped off into daytime slumber. Crows entered the corn patch at a point furtherest away from my somnolent raptor, a distance of about 15 metres. I have used a crow sized piece of black plastic tied to the end of a long pole to flap in the breeze. Odd growers claimed some success with this variation of a hanging dead crow method. I still utilize and frequently move the plastic should my local crows become a short-term nuisance.

Electronic sounds   Two Australian scientists (Bomford and O’Brien 1990) examined the literature dealing with tests of devices that use sound to control bird damage. With the exception of distress and alarm call broadcasts (which showed potential) there was little scientific evidence to support claims of effectiveness for sonic devices in bird damage control. None of the devices reliably tested were likely to result in damage mitigation. They concluded that the value of bangers, clangers, poppers, bombers, sirens and most electronic noises on the birds and mammals tested is almost entirely limited to short-term control. The best effects were obtained when (1) sound is presented at random intervals, (2) a range of different sounds is used, (3) the sound source is moved frequently, (4) sounds are supported by additional methods such as distress calls of visual devices, and (5) sounds are reinforced by real danger, such as shooting. Much of the work in this field was carried out overseas now with varying claims of success. I am aware of different companies who currently offer devices emitting a variation of distress, alarm, and alert calls. The costs of these devices would put them beyond the reach of a small grower; close up the noise would be prohibitive. A Victorian company, Biosis Research P/L (Jaremovic 1990), was involved in the field of bio-acoustics until research funding ran out. Distress calls of some fauna may not repel, but bring others to investigate.

Bags  Various bags may be worth considering but generally have a disadvantage to the grower of not readily being able to see the colour of the fruit. I quote the example of a Gympie persimmon grower facing ruin from (mainly) rainbow lorikeets some years ago. During consecutive seasons he installed 140,000 and 110,000 paper bags over his fruit and was able to harvest and make a profit. 1994 prices were 4.5 cents for each bag and 4.5 cents to install each bag. He considered the mass of white bags had a deterrent effect on birds overflying his crop. While some lorikeets did rip these bags open such damage was negligible. However, I speculate if such fruit was left just that bit longer to ripen on the tree flying foxes may have followed the ethylene gases given off during the ripening process. (Scientists advised the acute senses of these animals allow them to detect ripening fruit from a distance of 500 metres). We utilize second hand carrot/onion net bags ex supermarket stores. These do allow an idea of fruit colour, assist in keeping fruit fly and piercing moth at bay, and will break down in about 12 months if overlooked. Friendly farmers may be happy to dispose of old 40kg fertilizer bags, while a Gympie company (may) have used jute coffee bags.

Offensive Odours  There are a host of  substances – apart from socks used in old gum boots –  which fall into the nasty odour category; they may not be popular with down-wind neighbours. As a generalization, these substances have to be re-applied after rain. I have no information as to the efficacy of using a ‘sticker’ with these repellents. As another generalization, it is/was unlawful to use a chemical on a crop for which it is not registered. For the personal use back-yarder I will merely say, ‘be careful’ of some of these substances, particularly if giving away or selling fruit. The real issue here is ‘how long does a substance repel in all weathers until efficacy is impaired and  re-application required?’

 While lion or tiger urine and elephant dung may be a little difficult to obtain,

  • local bean crop growers applying fungicides, e.g., Thiram, to their crops found it repelled wallabies and hares
  • several years ago New Zealand scientists researching chemical bird control discovered a product referred to as ‘C1’ which was said not to penetrate the skin of grapes. It had an LD50 to mice of 1600 ppm, but was repellent to birds.
  • About 1990, in South Australia (and the USA) research was being carried out on methyl anthranilate, said to be a non toxic substance. In one test a similar degree of repellency was recorded when the birds were again exposed 10 days later for food treated with 50% of the chemical
  • Other South Australian research was being carried out on another chemical aimed specifically at starlings and sparrows.
  • An American product known as ‘Sevana’ was made from a mixture of garlic powder and cayenne powder and was said to have a repellent effect although some reports suggested a residual impact on the flavour of grapes.
  • About 1990 New Zealand scientists developed a substance based on egg powder to repel hares and wallabies from young trees. Another egg-powder based repellent was developed in Victoria and I heard, only a few months ago, some Americans had also discovered an egg based repellent.

Netting   When I suggested netting as a solution to a particular bird or bat problem some years ago almost without exception growers responded by saying it is far too expensive. Many commercial growers went on to express amazement at the huge increase in fruit harvested after netting their crop; they didn’t know just how great their losses were. Some growers were able to recoup the netting cost within two seasons.  For the hobbyist, the potential loss of  prized fruit versus relaxing during the day and getting to sleep of a night means the only realistic way of protecting your fruit is to net. Small mesh netting aimed at excluding fruit fly will increase the humidity within the tree canopy which may lead to an increase in mites and mildews and loss of crop. It can also decrease the amount of light reaching the tree.

The issue, for me, in living with my furred and feathered friends, is what sort of net, where does one get it, and how is it used? I made up some samples of netting for the group. The DPI at Nambour were trying an exclusion net against fruit fly but you would build up the humidity inside the tree canopy and my experience is that you can increase the mite damage and lose a lot of your leaf with netting that dense. There are extruded nets and woven nets. Woven nets won’t snare your wildlife. Contact the DPI to find out the growers who have lost their nets and see if you can buy it.

Avocado Cultivars Susceptibility to Fruitspotting Bugs AmblypeltaSpp. (Hemiptera: Coreidae)

Print this entry

ABSTRACT
Fruitspotting bugs are the major pests of avocados grown in Queensland, Australia.  They feed on the fruit, which usually cracks, resulting in significant losses.  Regular insecticide sprays are required to limit the damage.  Thin-skinned cultivars have traditionally been considered to be more susceptible to the bugs because feeding damage is expressed on the thin skins as severe cracks and craters.  The damage is thus more visible than it is in the thick-skinned cultivars, which often do not crack but form ‘blind stings’ that are easily  overlooked.  The bugs are difficult to detect in the trees and monitoring for their activity must be on the basis of damage to the fruit.  Data obtained from a sprayed commercial orchard and from an unsprayed experimental block indicate that fruitspotting bugs prefer the thin-skinned cultivars of Fuerte and Wurtz to the thick-skinned cultivars of Hass and Sharwil.  Pinkerton appears to be an exception for although it has a medium-thick skin, it was the first to be attacked, possibly because it set fruit earliest, and the damage inflicted was severe.  In the sprayed commercial orchard, damage to Fuerte (1.9%) and Wurtz (4.3%) was significantly higher than that recorded on Hass (0.04%) and Sharwil (0.03%).  In the unsprayed block, damage was 68.5% on Pinkerton, 73.6% on Fuerte and 18.9% on Hass.  In orchards that consist of mixed plantings that include Fuerte, Wurtz or Pinkerton, these cultivars can be used as indicator trees for monitoring fruitspotting bug activity and also as decoy trees for targeted control.

INTRODUCTION Fruit spotting bugs cause serious damage to most tree fruit and nut crops grown on the east coast of Australia (Waite, 1990).

They breed on many native host plants as well as a wide selection of exotic ornamentals, from which the adult bugs migrate into orchards throughout the fruiting season (Waite and Huwer, 1998).  The bugs are especially attracted to fruit just after it has set and damage at this stage usually results in the fruit falling from the tree.  Many crops including avocados, are susceptible from fruit set in spring through to fruit maturity in autumn.  Orchards in particularly susceptible locations, which are generally in proximity to rainforest breeding areas, require frequent sprays to prevent devastating damage.  Such sprays are usually of endosulfan, the use of which has been questioned on environmental grounds.  On the other hand synthetic pyrethroids, which provide excellent control of the bugs, may result in increased spraying of various types of insecticide because of the disruption of beneficial insects and mites with the resulting flare of secondary pests such as mites and scales.  Research is currently focused on an investigation of the fruitspotting bug hotspot phenomenon and whether such areas of an orchard can be used for targeted monitoring and control.  In conjunction with this the relative susceptibility of different avocado cultivars to fruitspotting bugs has been investigated with a view to growing the most susceptible cultivars as trap or decoy trees, so that the bugs can be destroyed with minimal effort and cost before they disperse throughout the orchard.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Various known fruitspotting bug hosts were considered for assessment as possible trap trees for the purpose of monitoring and control.  The increasingly popular ornamental plant, orange jessamine, Murraya paniculata, is very attractive to both species of fruitspotting bug.  However, fruit needs to be present on the plants to attract bugs and individual plants fruit inconsistently.  Moreover, on the Sunshine Coast of Queensland at least, Murraya does not carry a significant fruit load after October and so, although it is very attractive to adult bugs in spring and may act as a local focal point for early season breeding, it does not attract bugs for the major part of the avocado season.  The most consistently attractive and convenient bug host would be an avocado cultivar that is more attractive to the bugs than are others, and in which the damage is easily detected as it is inflicted.  Fuerte is an obvious candidate for this role along with Pinkerton and Wurtz.  Fuerte trees were closely monitored in a commercial orchard at Woombye, and fruitspotting bug damage was compared with that on Hass, Wurtz and Sharwil.  At Maroochy Research Station Fuerte, Pinkerton and Hass were compared for the timing and intensity of fruitspotting bug attack.  The number of fruit that showed fruitspotting bug damage on datum trees was recorded.  On the final assessment date, the total number of fruit on the trees was counted, in addition to fruitspotting bug damaged fruit.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
At Woombye, observations of damage to the fruit indicated that Fuerte did indeed suffer much more damage than Sharwil or Hass, and although the damage was also easier to see on the thin skinned Fuerte, the difference was real and not just apparent.  Wurtz fruit tended not to show bug damage clearly, and it was manifest at harvest mostly as smooth dimples rather than the cracks or craters that develop in Fuerte.  A row of Wurtz trees immediately adjacent to a stand of wild guavas proved to be a major hotspot in this orchard.  Assessment at harvest showed that damage to Fuerte (1.9%) and Wurtz (4.3%) was significantly higher than that recorded on Hass (0.04%) and Sharwil (0.03%).  In the mixed, unsprayed orchard at Maroochy Research Station, Pinkerton was the first to set fruit and so was the first to be attacked by bugs.  Eight fruit on one of two Pinkerton trees were damaged on 8 October 2002.  This increased to 23 and then 32 over the next two weeks.  By 18 November the two Pinkerton trees had 102 damaged fruit while two Fuerte trees nearby had a total of 11 damaged fruit.  By then the Hass fruit was at a stage that was attractive to the bugs and 15 fruit were damaged on two trees adjacent to the Pinkerton trees.  As the season progressed, some of the damaged Pinkerton and Fuerte fruit developed anthracnose and fell, but it remained clear that both these cultivars suffered much greater and earlier damage from the bugs in October and November than did the other cultivars, and attack continued through January, February and March.  In contrast, damage on Hass did not increase significantly after the initial period of attack in November and December (Table1).  At final assessment, mean damage was 68.5% on Pinkerton, 73.6% on Fuerte and 18.9% on Hass.  Over the past decade, avocado growers in south east Queensland have tended to remove Fuerte from their orchards because of the amount of damage that was caused by fruitspotting bugs.  This damage resulted despite frequent applications of insecticidal sprays.  Since the bugs will attack all cultivars, the action of removing the most attractive cultivar merely removed the distraction that Fuerte trees formerly provided, allowing the bugs direct access to cultivars such as Hass, Sharwil and Wurtz.

CONCLUSIONS
These data support the proposition that rather than culling Fuerte trees from orchards because of their susceptibility to fruitspotting bugs, they should be retained precisely for that reason as indicator/ trap trees, and to act as a decoy for the pests to reduce the damage that might be inflicted on the more highly regarded cultivars.

Acknowledgements This project is supported by the Australian Avocado Growers’ Asscn and Hort Australia Ltd.

Sheryl:   Muriel and Ken are members of our club.

For Table 1 and References see:
http://www.avocadosource.com/WAC5/Papers/WAC5_p515.pdf, p518  24Jan 2013

Coconut Tips

Print this entry

  • Coconut “Sap” (Sugar)
    Sheryl  Some folk are substituting this product instead of using the normal sugar made from sugarcane. Wiki says that the major component of coconut sugar is 70–79% sucrose. Partially refined or raw sugar is 97% sucrose and after refining, 99.95% sucrose. Molasses is added – for light brown they add 12%, for dark brown they add 13%.   White sugar can be made from sugar cane or from sugar beets which grow in a temperate climate. Both kinds are 99.95 percent sucrose and that minuscule 0.05 percent made up of trace differences in minerals and proteins can have an effect. Just google: sugar beet vs sugar cane and read the full article here:  www.sfgate.com  It can affect the outcome of cooking certain recipes eg crème brulee won’t caramelize on top using beet sugar.

    (coconutsecret.com) Coconut palms are one of the oldest flowering trees in the world.  For centuries throughout the tropics, the traditional practice of “tapping” coconut trees for their prized “sap” is a time-honoured art form.  The nutrient-rich sap that exudes from the blossoms before they mature into coconuts, is used to make many unique and nutritious food products. The principles of tapping the coconut tree blossoms for their sap, bears only minor resemblance to the practice of tapping maple trees for maple syrup production.  Containers used to collect the sap are made out of hollow bamboo tubes that are fastened onto the thick fleshy stems covered in small flowers. The freshly gathered coconut tree sap is oyster white in colour, has a nearly neutral pH, and is already inherently sweet tasting by nature.  Whereas, the sap from a maple tree (as well as the juice from an agave cactus) has very little readily available sweetness, and requires long heating times in order to produce the sweet syrup you purchase in the bottle. The most remarkable thing about tapping a coconut tree is that once it is tapped, it flows its sap continuously for the next 20 years.  From a sustainability viewpoint, the harvestable energy production from tapping coconut trees for their sap (which yields 5,000 litres per hectare), rather than allowing them to produce fruit, is 5-7 times higher per hectare than coconut oil production from mature coconuts. 

    (wiki)  Coconut sugar (also known as coco sugar, coconut palm sugar or coco sap sugar) is a sugar produced from the sap of cut flower buds of the coconut palm. Coconut sugar has been used as a traditional sweetener for thousands of years in the South-East Asian regions where the coconut palm is in abundant supply. The world’s largest producers of coconuts are the Philippines and Indonesia. In some areas, predominantly in Thailand, the terms “coconut sugar” and “palm sugar” are often used interchangeably. However, coconut sugar is different both in taste, texture and manufacture methods from palm sugar, which is made from the sap in the stems of the Palmyra palm, the date palm, the sugar date palm, the sago palm or the sugar palm.

    (authoritynutrition) Is Coconut Sugar a better choice than white sugar? According to the Philippine Food and Nutrition Research Institute, coconut sugar has a lower glycemic index (35) than white sugar (60 to 65), meaning it doesn’t spike your blood glucose and insulin like table sugar does. This is much lower than table sugar but I do have a problem with making any conclusions based on this study alone. GI can vary greatly between individuals and this study included only 10 people. GI can also vary between different batches of food meaning that products from other manufacturers might have slightly different effects. In their graph they are comparing coconut sugar to glucose, not table sugar (sucrose). I’d like to see it compared to regular table sugar, because that is what coconut sugar is being used to replace. Overall, I’m not convinced that coconut sugar is really as low on the glycemic index as they claim. Perhaps the Inulin fibre in it slows absorption somewhat, but I’d like to see another study before I make a conclusion.
     

    • Visiting Gavin Scurr's Mango Farm

    Print this entry

    Sheryl   This is part of a talk given by Gavin to our group earlier in the year.
    Pruning Gavin  We prune on a 15° angle in from the outside to the top – Christmas tree shape. Up north we do them vertical. Reason we do angle pruning here is because of the sun because we are further away from the equator and it lets in more light if we open them up. If you look inside the trees, you’ll see that we have stripped the leaves off on the old branches – we’ve just left the leaves on the outside. Just take off the ones in the shade on the inside of the tree. You need 80 leaves per piece of fruit as a rule of thumb. Any more than 80 just creates issues. You leave them on the outside to photosynthesis. They don’t do it in the north plus they would get sunburn up north if we did that. Down here ie our Rockhampton and Wamuran farms we strip the leaves by hand. We tried to do it with chemicals but it’s hit and miss but it would take off leaves you don’t want off so we do that when we prune in June and July. It lets more light and air in and is less place for disease to harbour. Sheryl  Which way do you strip? Gavin  From the outside in. Just wear cotton gloves. Sheryl  Do you take the leaves away? Gavin  No, we just leave them where they fall. They throw their leaves off by the tonne! They’re not a very good tree backyard tree from an aesthetic point of view – lots of leaves! You’ll notice we have a pretty clean environment under the trees. We use to throw all the grass clippings and mulch – nice organic matter which is good for the trees’ health however it breeds disease and because of our sprayers and we’re blowing air, it bounces off and throws all that disease back up into our tree so we now have a sterile environment. When we prune, we pull all the branches out but we don’t go through all the loose leaves. There are people who go through and rake and burn them and always have bare dirt but we don’t go to that extent. It’s pruned with secateurs and gets thrown into the centre of the rows then we run the slasher over it and it all stays out there because that’s where the roots are anyway. Five years ago we would have gone through and tip pruned and thinned them out whereas now we wait until winter to do that because we get a better crop from it. If you want to really prune a large tree right down, you can cut off half the tree one year and do the other half the year after. We prune June/July in winter. You can overprune mangoes – pruning knocks production around for that year so the less you do the better down here in SE Qld. Up in Nth Qld is different. We found that after harvest we’d go through and tip prune all the old flower panicles, stems etc. and tidy it all up and if that’s early enough and you get a reasonable run into winter, you’re probably OK but if your tree doesn’t flush back again and it only flushes again say end of March, you end up with a really weak flush. Sheryl  I notice you don’t cut out the centre.

    Gavin  No. We use to do that but what we found was that it can get sunburn and it encourages regrowth all on the inside so you’re forever in there pulling that out as well. The concept is that at flowering the tree will look like a fishbowl – there will be leaves all around the outside and inside will be totally open other than branches. You don’t get a heck of a lot of mangoes on the top of a tree – most are on the side so as you can see the tops have flushed again.

    To rejuvenate big trees From a structure perspective you can prune as hard as you like with a chainsaw and you won’t kill them and they’ll just flush out. Late summer (is good but it’s important when you cut them down that you paint the whole tree that is left with a water based white paint otherwise they’ll burn badly and they won’t recover. Also cut on an angle so water will run off. We keep all our trees down to a height that is manageable from the ground – usually a max of 4 mtrs so when there is fruit on it, the weight of the mangoes will put it down to 3 mtrs. We then use a 1½ mtr picking pole so all the fruit are picked from the ground. Member:  We were in Taiwan and their trees are only 2½ mtrs. Gavin  They grow differently to us. They bag all their fruit, thin it out so they get perfect fruit.

    Member:  Custard Apples are grown the same – about 2½ mtrs.

    Anthracnose: If you get this, we take the whole branch right back. Some growers in NSW go through once the crop sets and when it is duck egg or bigger, they’ll go through and take all the dead panicles off because they will mark your fruit but if you are paying someone, it’s an added expense.   That wood is as thick as your finger so if you take it back to 500mm from where it last branched, it will push the flower out of that hardwood.

    Spacing  6 metre x 3 metres. In the tropics 8 x 4 metres and most growers go with 10 x 5 metres but they only get around 10-12 tonne per hectare.  We’ve gone high density and keep the tree shape down. We can get 20-24 tonne to the hectare.

    Foliar Fertiliser  We do this when the tree is flowering. Vic  The Brisbane Organic Growers were asking a question in their newsletter about putting foliar sprays on trees. Is it absorbed more by the top of the leaf or the underside?

    Gavin  It depends on what you are trying to do. If you are trying to get something into the leaf like nutrients it takes in very little on older leaves so it doesn’t matter. You need younger leaves that are soft which allows it to go in. As to the top or the bottom, we try and get coverage on both because I think it does go through both however you’ll get 10 times as much in a younger lime colour leaf than you will on the dark green leaf. Our mister goes right through the tree as well as the top. It will depend on what sort of coverage we’re looking for. If we’re applying a foliar nutrient and we just want it on the outside, we’ll travel along at 6-7 km whereas if we want good penetration with a fungicide or insecticide, we’ll slow down to 3-4km an hour.

    Soil Member  I notice you have sandy soil so obviously that controls your nutrient to your trees so you can control what goes into your trees a lot better than a backyarder on heavy soil. Gavin  Mangoes don’t need a specific soil to be good but the type of soil influences how you feed it. They will grow anywhere. The heavier soil takes longer to respond but doesn’t leach so if you put nutrients in there, it stays in there whereas in sandy loam that we have, we have to keep putting it in as it leaches so we put little bits in regularly. They are a relative of mangroves and in the Northern Territory and the Top End, trees will grow in water up to a foot deep for 3 months so they are tough. George?  On a heavy soil you would get more vegetative growth because it holds nitrogen better.

    Gavin  Yes that is right. Ideally for mangoes, the harder country you put them on, the more fruit you will get off them. They are a very lazy tree commercially – they just want to keep growing vegetatively and there’s no money in mango leaves!  They don’t yield a lot compared to the amount of potential they’ve got with a big tree. The same size citrus will pull 40-50 tonne a hectare where the mango will have 8 tonne a hectare.

    Gavin   In winter when you get a vegetative flush, we will use Mancozeb every two weeks in normal weather however if you get rain, you have to go back and put it on again. We also use it with a surfactant and it depends on whether we want to get coverage or penetration so if we are using a systemic fungicide eg Amastar that you wouldn’t be allowed to use. We use a systemic and with the Mancozeb we will use it with a bit of oil. We also use Copper and we’ll mix the two together. We don’t use Copper around flowering. It’s been proven safe but it can burn. Sometimes we use them separately but it depends on the season. When it’s been really dry, we’ll use Mancozeb then use Copper the next time but when it’s wet, we’ll mix the two together. Sheryl  When do you stop your spray program? Gavin   We don’t. We do it all year round. Whenever there is new growth, we’ll do it so while it’s flushing, you need to protect it about a month apart and then when it hardens off and if it hasn’t rained but if it rains we’ll still do it every two weeks and when it gets to flowering, that’s when it really cranks up and we’ll spray every 7 days regardless due to the dew factor. Dew is a big issue for us. You can use any type of copper depending on how much you want to spend. Cupric hydroxide is one of the better ones as it has a finer particle – the finer the particle, the better it will work but it’s more expensive so commercially we top end of the range so even in your backyard, I would use the top one as well. In this environment you need the best. Two things will kill the flower – Anthracose if it rains before it got to a stage before it could pollinate or it’s been too cold so there is nothing to pollinate or the stomata is not open because it’s too cold. George  You’ve probably heard about Peter Young’s boron recipe on the flowers. If your tree doesn’t have enough boron or not enough calcium, you’ll probably find you won’t get as good a fruit set as you should.

    Gavin   We spray the flowers with fungicide obviously but nutritionally we put boron, zinc and iron twice during panicle extension. When they are about 6ins out, we’ll put a foliar boron, zinc and iron on. It will cost a bit more but we use a chelated form because we can mix them all together and we don’t need to go through as often. Boron is critical for opening the flower seed. With mangoes it’s easy to get boron toxicity so don’t go overboard on it. If we get a lot of rain, we won’t go through and refertilise. The rule of thumb is that canopy size is a similar size to the roots. If you have a 3 mtr tall tree, the roots will be 3 mtrs down. We’ll put a kilo of fertiliser on after rain. Compaction is an issue for us here as well because we’re playing in the wet ie every time it rains, we need to go down and spray so the mangoes are growing on raised beds. We’ve done that deliberately to shed the water away from the roots.

    Rootstocks
    The mango industry has very little data on rootstocks. There hasn’t been a lot of work done on this. The industry was based around Kensington Pride or KP as we call it and up until 15 years ago, that was the only mango. There is some rootstock work being done in the industry now however KP is still the most common rootstock only because we know what it is. There are probably better ones out there but they are unproven. It costs us $80,000 a hectare to put mangoes in the ground so you want to know what you are going to get. 

    Sheryl  How do they take off the husk commercially?
    Gavin   They put them in a tumbler to get the flesh off them then spread them out on a black piece of plastic to dry them out for a couple of weeks then do it by hand. A pair of secateurs to take the end off then an oyster knife! Very time consuming.

    Pollination We use European bee hives from a commercial apiarist. We also grow strawberries so the hives get shifted over to the strawberries so we get free pollination and he gets the honey! In the Northern Territory where we have 400 hectares of mangoes, you need a lot of hives and we need to bring bees in so it’s a commercial operation and we pay $28.00 a week per hive and we’ll have 2000 out during flowering and we do this for a month. When the bees are there, we can’t do any spraying until they are in bed and in the NT, that’s dusk and as soon as it’s light they are out so all our spraying is done in the dark. One of the issues with one of the properties in Katherine NT is that we are right up against 2000 hectares of watermelon and they need to be pollinated from April through October so they’re continually rotating the bees around. Bees will travel 8kms so we need to be mindful of them around vegetatively as we’ve taken out some of the hives with Fipronel which is lethal on ants and a bit spilt into a puddle and the bees came and drank from the puddle and took it back to the hive and nailed the hive. Sheryl  The native bee people say they pollinate mangoes. Do you use them? Gavin   There’s not many around and they are hard to manage. Any insect will pollinate mangoes as they are easy to pollinate particularly when it’s warm. The issue down here is the stomatas don’t open when it’s cold and mid July we will take off every flower because it’s too cool to pollinate properly. It takes about a month to prune then we’ll go back again middle of July and take off everything again. George  They use to say that nubbins were caused by low 6° C temperature killing off the embryo but what you are saying is that the bees aren’t pollinating below a certain temperature so what causes the nubbins? Is it the lack of pollination or the cold or both? I think they’ve said that the embryo dies but you could see that by cutting the flowers when they are very little and looking at it under a microscope and you should see whether the embryo has gone or not. It’s the 1st time I’ve heard that lack of pollination causes nubbins. Gavin  It’s the lack of pollination but it can be caused by both but we think it’s 10°C. Stomatas won’t open so they can’t pollinate even if something was there to pollinate them so if there are no insects and insects aren’t out at that temperature so basically it’s a lack of pollination that are causing the nubbins.  Barbara:  We had a talk by Don Batten and he spoke about flower initiation in the drop of temperature and he says he prunes in May and that flower initiation happens when it’s cold. Gavin:  I agree with the concept but there are many ways of doing something. We use to do a lot of things that we no longer do. If we had done it in May, what can happen is that it can have another flush after that – not a flower. It will either be vegetative or floral so if they go vegetative at the end of May you can be in trouble. You’re going to have to take it all off and start again. If it goes floral at the end of May, you’re still in trouble because it’s too early and they won’t set. There are a lot of insects around but they don’t get out of bed til its 18°C so both ways you lose out. We do it end of June or even July depending on the winter. If you get a warm

    winter, you can do it earlier. The concept is sound – just the timing and we’re getting better results if we push it back to July.

    Pests There’s Mango Leaf Scale that probably does the most damage. They’re little white specks and they will kill the leaves and the leaves go yellow where they are and in a month, the leaf will go dead. There are chemicals you can use but a vegetable oil is an appropriate way of handling Mango Scale. You need a fine mist and ideally some air as that is how commercial people spray mango. We throw the spray in front of the sprayer and use the air to spread it. It’s the uniformity of the coverage that is important – not the volume.

    Flying Foxes:  They don’t like green mangoes so we don’t see them til we get some ripe fruit in the orchard ie just getting a bit of yellow tinge. In commercial orchards, we harvest just prior to that stage – what we call mature green. Control rats with bait. Lorikeets are also an issue with mangoes. In the NT we have a lot of problem with white cockatoos. They are very destructive. They don’t eat the fruit. What they do is land on a branch, and the fruit is on a panicle and they watch it drop on the ground then go to the next!!  When we are picking, we’ll continually cut a heap of fruit throughout the day to make sure that we are harvesting at correct maturity as we pick before they are ripe. It is difficult to tell what is mature and what is not because colour is not a good indicator. The best way to tell with most mango varieties is the smoothness of the skin. When you run your hand over immature fruit, it has little bumps like fine sandpaper but once that smooths out, it will be ready to pick. Also the shoulders at the top of the fruit will tend to puff up and the stem will be lower than the shoulders. The nose (bottom end of the fruit) as well will fill out but sometimes depending on the year. Usually you will only get one mango per panicle.

    Fruit Spotting Bug:  It can attack green fruit and we monitor for that. We get it quite bad here around Nov-Dec – two months before harvest. George  Do you get any damage from the fruit spotting bug on the young growth of the vegetative growth? Gavin  We don’t have a major issue but as soon as there is a hot spot, we will spray and one of them is a natural pyrethrum but if they’re hiding behind a leaf, you won’t kill them. We also get a little caterpillar on the young growth that grows to 2cm long, brown and white and we get hot spots of them as well. George  I know they get phytophthora in mangoes in the north – do you get any here?

    Gavin   No, it’s not a big issue. Mangoes are not resistant to phytophthora but they have a massive tolerance to phytophthora.

    Mango Picker  We built the machine ourselves. We have two people walking along cutting the mangoes from the stem and it needs to go into the water within 3 secs of picking otherwise the sap could burn the skin of the mango. There is also another person on a platform on the machine. Mango sap is toxic and burns the skin so the water circulates around the machine and we have another person takes the stems off. We put a detergent in the water to stop the smearing. The tank on the machine holds 1500 litres of water. We made another machine out of a Nissan Patrol 4×4 ute because when it’s wet, we kept bogging the other one and this machine can run down the centre and have two people either side. After we bring them back to the shed, we wash them again and put a fungicide in the water. George  Does time of the day make much difference to the pressure of the sap?

    Gavin   It does. The turga pressure in the fruit is higher in the morning than the afternoon. The pickers just have to be more careful in the morning.

    Ripening Mangoes after picking  Try and find the coolest well ventilated place in the house until they colour up to what you would call ripe then put it in the fridge and if you’ve grown it correctly, they should keep for around 2 weeks. KPs will go mushy in the freezer but Honey Gold don’t – well – not as much! They’re not as good as fresh but they’re still a solid piece of fruit. Different people like them greener and others prefer them riper. Store at about 12°C for as long as you can but it will continue to ripen. When you ripen at this temp, it’s too cool for the sugars to come up. We don’t use the Brix meter on our mangoes but we do on Strawberries and Pineapples because they don’t ripen after harvest. Watermelon is another that doesn’t ripen after harvest. Brix is not an accurate measurement of eating flavour. If you get a mango perfectly ripe and measured the brix then, then it’s consistent and it should be 14 brix but by then it’s too late to do anything about it.

    Water   On a drip feed.

    Pineapples  They put Nemacur over them for nematodes and Phos Acid to control the phytophthora. There are certain types of nematodes that will get into mangoes. We can’t grow Pineapples without using Phos Acid for phytophthora whereas we don’t treat Mangoes for phytophthora or nematodes. We also get a big Tea Mosquito the size of a fruit spotting bug and they’ll mark the fruit. They leave a black mark on the fruit. We also have a problem with wood ducks in our strawberries. They just demolish them!

    Pineapple  If you want to keep them longer, don’t snap the top off – cut it off and that way it acts as a plug and the shelf life won’t change. If you break it off, it will only last a few days. The pineapple top will store for 6-8 weeks before planting. 

    Weeds  We mainly use glyphosate (roundup). We use a bit of Baster on woody weeds like vines. It’s important not to let your weeds go to seed. You can maintain it with very light doses of glyphosate but if you let it get knee high in seed, it’s hard work.

    Mango Checklist

    Fertilise after harvest We do a soil and leaf analysis immediately after harvest but for a backyard grower if you have a tree around 3 metres, spread approx. 800gms around the tree after harvest. Something like CK55. It is very important to fertilise at this time of year so you get them to flush before winter. We have all our fruit off by the end of February.

    Prune in winter June/July.  Strip off all the old leaves in the centre leaving all the new ones on the outside. If you decide to do a hard prune, use a water based paint on all the branches and trunk.

    Foliar Fertiliser when the flowers get to 100mm long with Boron and Zinc and about a month later when the flowers are fully opened and just prior to fruit set. We buy it in chelated (liquid) form which is more expensive but easier to spray.

    Pests  We spray the fruit with Bugmaster (Carbaryl) to control the Fruit Spotting Bug. Check around November/December.

    Diseases  We use Mancozeb every 2 weeks once flowering commences and we continue this until harvest. 

    Propagation  Take your scionwood from the current year’s flush that has hardened off – best time is December and January. (SE Qld) There is a disease called Mango Malformation which is a type of Fusarium disease so if you were propagating, it is important to get the tree tested against this as it can lay dormant for many years.

    There are around 800 commercial mango growers around Australia. They are even grown in Victoria along the Murray River and Renmark in South Australia.

    Sheryl  Gavin was telling me that the Honey Gold variety they grow freezes quite well and doesn’t go mushy when dethawed. I tested it out recently as I still had some frozen and found that they were very acceptable so can recommend this method. Nice recipes here:  www.mangoes.net.au

    Abiu – Pouteria caimito

    Print this entry

    Abiu is an attractive, bright yellow fruit with a sweet, caramel flavoured, creamy-white pulp. It is produced on a small tree which grows well and flowers and fruits prolifically in north Queensland and around Darwin. The fruit is available 8 months of the year in Australia and has a good potential for commercial development. Abiu originates from the Amazon basin in South America where it may have been cultivated for some thousands of years by the Indians of the region. However, only in very recent years has it been ‘discovered’ and grown commercially outside its home range. It is grown to a limited extent in Florida, USA, in northern Australia and two years ago in Malaysia. A grower group in Malaysia introduced two cultivars from north Queensland and has successfully grown and marketed the fruit in Malaysia, Singapore and Hong Kong. The fruit was renamed “Wong Kum Kuo” which means Emperor’s Golden Fruit and it was very well received by consumers in the region.

    THE TREE                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Abiu is an evergreen tree, reaching heights of five to fifteen metres in its natural habitat. The commercial varieties are usually less than 7 m high. It has alternate, longish, leathery leaves with a short stalk, arranged spirally on the branch. The flowers are small and white and appear singly or in clusters at the axil of the leaf or leaf scar, and a branch may have up to 280 flowers. They open in the morning. They are usually cross pollinated by insects. In Queensland flowering occurs three times a year and may overlap with fruit set, but in the Northern Territory two flowerings are usual, in February-March and July-August. Abiu does not appear to need a dry period to trigger flowering.

    THE FRUIT
    In the Northern Territory fruiting occurs from June to August and late October to January. Abiu fruit is a berry, with a smooth, leathery skin, 3-5 mm thick, containing an irritant latex when the fruit is green. When mature the fruit turns bright yellow. It varies in shape from ellipsoidal to spherical and may have a pointed end (nipple). It is 60-100 mm in diameter and weighs 100-600gm, with some fruit reaching 1 500 gm. A yield of 10-30 kg/tree/year may be obtained from three year old trees and up to 200 kg/tree/year from older trees. At spacings of 200 trees/ha (10 m by 5 m ) yields of up to 40 tons/ha /year can be obtained. The flesh is soft, gelatinous, translucent-white and each fruit has 1-4 large dark brown seeds. Abiu is eaten slightly chilled by halving the fruit and scooping out the flesh or by cutting the fruit into segments and eating alone or in a fruit salad. It can also be used for juice and in ice-cream. The fruit is rich in vitamins and minerals: thiamine 0.2 mg, riboflavin 0.2 mg, niacin 3.4 mg, vitamin C 49 mg, calcium 22 mg and iron 1.8 mg.

    CULTIVARS Several varieties have been developed in Queensland :- Inca Gold, Cape Oasis, Gray, Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4. Two more selections, T25 and T31, have been developed in the Territory. To date the best cultivars are: Z 4 – a large, round fruit cultivar with a single seed, and Z2 a large, ellipsoid fruit with 1-2 seed. Gray performs poorly around Darwin and the fruit of Z3 is small. The characteristics of a good cultivar are: • early, regular bearing at about 40 t/ha/ year; • round or rotund fruits; • a small nipple or no nipple (for ease of packing); • mean fruit weight above 200 gm; • absence of ‘water-soaked’ areas on the skin (see diseases); • absence of ‘browning’ of the flesh – (see diseases); • little skin latex; • skin thicker than 4 mm – to protect against bruising; • flesh firm and translucent but not glassy; • sweet (brix 13-18%); • seedless or with 1-2 small seeds;

    • shelf life of at least 10-12 days.

    AGRONOMY
    Location
    Abiu likes full sun and thrives best in a humid tropical environment with a year round rainfall of 1 000-3 000 mm but it is frost tolerant to 2°C and quite drought tolerant if protected from cold or dry winds by a windbreak. It can be grown on a range of soils and tolerates a wide ranges of pH (optimum 5.5-7.0) but is killed by saline soil. Irrigation is needed in the Top End to sustain good growth and fruiting.

    Germination
    Seeds germinate readily in 2-10 days and may germinate in the fruit but seed viability lasts only 1-2 days in dry conditions so they are difficult to store. Seeds are germinated in pots or polybags. Vegetative propagation is by top wedge grafting and budding.

    Planting
    Seedlings are planted out when about 9 months old and 30-40 cm high, and planting is done just before the wet season. Local investigation suggests a planting distance of 4-6 m in rows 8-10 metres apart. As the fruit is attractive to birds, planting at a closer density of 5 m by 8-10 m under netting is recommended. The planting hole should contain 200 g single superphosphate, 200 g dolomite and 2-3 kg of well cured animal manure.

    Pruning
    Trees should be lightly pruned when young to remove the central leader and promote well spaced branches. They should be held to 3 m in height to facilitate harvesting and branches should be not lower than 1 m from the ground.

    Fertilisation For a tree of pre-bearing age a fertiliser containing N:P:K in the ratio 10:4:8 is applied in 4-6 applications commencing 3 months after planting out: The amounts are: Year 1  0.5 kg Year 2  1.25 kg Year 3 2.00 kg

    For a tree of bearing age the fertiliser is changed to N:P:K in the ratio of 11:8:12. It is applied as follows:

    Year Total kg Late December Early April Mid July Late September 4 2.75 0.825 0.55 0.825 0.55 5 3.50 1.05 0.7 1.05 0.7 6 4.25 1.275 0.85 1.275 0.85 7 5.00 1.500 1.00 1.500 1.00 8 5.75 1.725 1.15 1.725 0.85 9 6.50 1.95 1.30 10..95 1.3 10 7.25 2.175 1.45 2.175 1.45 11 8.00 2.40 1.60 2.40 1.60

    The schedule should be modified accordingly following annual leaf tissue analysis and biennial soil analysis. Mean nutrient levels in Abiu leaf tissues that can be used as a guide are: N- 1.9 %, P – 0.26%, K – 0.9 %, Ca – 0.6 %, Mg – 0.5 %, Cl – 0.06%, S – 0.2 % and Zn – 16 ppm (mg/kg), Fe – 55 ppm, B – 56 ppm, Mn – 61 ppm, Cu – 5 ppm Zinc, iron and boron deficiencies are common in abiu grown on soils around Darwin. These can be ameliorated by separate soil or foliar application of compounds containing the respective nutrient. Two or three applications per year during the flushing periods are recommended. Zinc deficiency is rectified by foliar sprays of zinc sulphate heptahydrate or a zinc chelate at the rate of 1-2 g/L. Zinc sulphate monohydrate is used if soil application is desired and the rate recommended is 10g per metre ground surface per tree. Iron deficiency is corrected by soil treatment or preferably foliar applications of iron sulphate or chelate at 1 g/L. Boron deficiency can be remedied by borax (2 g/L) or the more soluble solubor (1 g/L) by foliar sprays. For soil application, 2.5-3.5 g of borax per square metre is spread evenly over the soil. Soil pH should be above 5.5 preferably between 6-6.5 and can be maintained by liming the soil annually with lime, dolomite or gypsum.

    Harvesting and Handling
    The fruit is harvested when almost the whole fruit turns bright yellow and becomes fully ripe in 1-3 days at room temperature. Harvested fruit must be protected from the sun and has a shelf life of 7-14 days at 10°C. Fruit may be tray packed in shredded paper or in socks to prevent bruising.

    DISEASES AND PESTS
    Abiu is relatively disease free apart from sooty mould (fungi) associated with the secretions of scale insects and mealy bugs. The foliage is prone to infestation by thrips, mealy bugs, pink wax scale and green scale. Fruit is susceptible to the fruit spotting bug (Hemiptera), fruit fly and thrips. Thrips may damage young foliage and cause russet scarring of fruit. Flowers may be damaged by webbing Tortricid caterpillars. The Hemiptera bug attacks young, green fruit to cause depressed black spots which lead to splitting as the fruit develops. Thrips and Hemiptera bugs may be controlled by sprays of endosulfan and dimethoate. Bird damage may be severe and could be a major limitation to the viability of the crop. Netting of trees is strongly recommended. A condition of browning of the flesh which shows on the fruit surface as a soft, ‘water-soaked’ area could be related to polyphenol oxidase enzymes. This needs more research and could be eliminated by genetic selection.

    Vegetable Tips

    Print this entry

    • Beetroot is a root vegetable that originated in southern Europe. It was originally grown for its leaves, although now both the leaves and root are eaten. Beetroot is related to sugar beet and is one of the sweetest vegetables available. It is a member of the spinach family and is a favourite food of summer salads and comes in a variety of colours and sizes: Ruby Red and Crosbys Egyptian Flat are dark red with dark green leaves and red stems. Detroit Dark Red and Bulls Blood have dark red and light zones when sliced. Chioggia also has concentric rings of red and white flesh. Albino are white as the name suggests. Burpees Golden Globe are an orange yellow variety. Cylindra is a long cylindrical. Selecting and storing beetroot  Choose beetroot with smooth, firm skin and a deep red colour, if choosing the darker varieties. If the leaves are still attached they should be ridged with pink/red veins. A scaly area at the top of the root indicates a tougher beetroot. Smaller beetroot are much more tender. Before storing trim the leaves 2 inches from the root, remove any dirt and do not wash or cut off the tails as the beetroot will bleed. Store beetroot in a dark, cool environment with high humidity. It can also be stored unwashed in plastic in the refrigerator for a week. The leaves can be stored in a separate plastic bag in the refrigerator for 2 days and used instead of other green leafy vegetables. Beetroot can be bottled in an acidic liquid – such as vinegar or lemon juice – which preserves the colour, if the liquid is too alkaline the colour turns a brownish purple. Freshly cooked beetroot can be frozen; once cooked peel and slice or leave whole, store in airtight bags or containers and freeze for up to 10 months. Beetroot is often used pickled in salads and sandwiches but fresh beetroot is just as delicious. For a tasty alternative to some of your favourite meals try these tasty recipes: Roast Beetroot, Feta and Rocket Salad; Roast Beetroot and Walnut Salad; Beetroot Hummus; excellent dip.
    • Grafting Eggplant to control Bacterial Wilt  by Don Gordon – STFC Apr/May 2010 Bacterial wilt is a major disease problem of eggplant in some areas and can make eggplant production uneconomical. One solution to this problem in smaller production areas may be grafting onto a resistant rootstock. Although labour-intensive this procedure can markedly increase the cropping life of the plants. A rootstock that can be used in eggplant grafting is devil’s fig (Solanum torvum), the fruit of which is used in Indonesian and Thai cooking. Although devil’s fig is normally resistant to bacterial wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum), it has shown wilt symptoms when planted through plastic mulch, due to the higher soil temperature under the plastic. The best way to propagate the plants is to grow the rootstock in 50 mm or 75 mm tubes and graft when the stock is 3 to 6 mm diameter. Seed can be germinated in normal seedling trays then transplanted to the bigger tubes a few days before grafting.  Cleft grafting is used (Figure 1). Shoot tips from an old crop may be used, but the best tips (scions) are taken from young seedlings grown specifically for the purpose. These scions should be no longer than 70 mm and contain one or two growing points. The length of the two cuts on the scion is no more than 15 mm, providing the rootstock is small. One vertical cut is made in the stock. To achieve equal size between the stock and scion, the rootstock seed is generally planted several weeks before the eggplant seed. Variations in germination times, even from different batches of seed from the same company, can interrupt grafting plans. There is some indication that while eggplant germinates best at 30°C, it still has 50% germination at 25°C whereas devil’s fig will give much less than 50% germination at 25°C. Bottom heat equipment or frying pans are used in cooler weather.

      Figure 1. Grafted eggplant seedling. In small plants up to pencil thickness, medium thickness clear plastic is as effective as most grafting tape. Smaller plants are often grafted using florist tape. Florist tape can have a short life when stored so buy it from a wholesaler in a bulk pack to ensure it is fresh. Do not store it in a hot place, such as the dashboard of a car, or it will melt together into an unusable mess. When stretched, florist tape clings to itself but will fall off as the plant expands. The fact that it does not need tying makes it easier to use. In a protected nursery environment, string or special grafting clips, which work well with whip grafting, can be used. Under good nursery conditions more leaves can be left on the scion, which helps quicker recovery of the scion.

      Do not let the rootstock get too big before grafting. Once greater than pencil thickness, less of the sap flow of the stock is intercepted by the scion. This results in a slow growing scion. Florist tape is unsuitable for use with bigger plants, so normal plastic tape has to be used. If this tape is removed early because potato tuber moth has got under the tape problems arise. Early removal of the tape can cause the union on the stock to ‘pull back’ from the scion (see Figure 2). The cause of this is probably the tendency of the scion to ‘take’ better at the tip or lowest part rather than on the top of the stock in older plants. This weak union can break in a storm, particularly with a heavy crop load. Figure 2. Folding back of the stock from the scion after removing tape too early.  (A problem where older rootstocks are grafted.)

      Do not plant too deep in the field because too many suckers will develop. Many eggplant growers have planted tobacco, eggplant and capsicums in the past. There is a tendency to plant deep because a better root system can result. With devil’s fig, the lateral vegetative buds grow up as suckers, even from 100 mm down. Removal of these can be a major maintenance task when growing the crop. If the scion dies in the field, remove the whole plant and replace it. Any attempt to graft bigger stocks in the field is ‘hit and miss’ at best and they become very thorny. Check young plants regularly for signs of potato tuber moth. If potato tuber moth larvae get under the tape nothing will control them and the grafted piece will wilt and die.

      Disease Bacterial wilt could still be a problem if plastic mulch is used. Overhead irrigation and bare soil can reduce bacterial wilt problems, both with grafted plants and normal seedlings. As bacterial wilt is mainly a summer problem there is more to be gained by grafting a spring planting. If some devil’s fig plants show wilt in a particular situation, normal seedling eggplant would have a much higher crop loss. Trellising As with seedling eggplant, there is a tendency for the plant to lodge or ‘crawl’ along the ground. This could be overcome by trellising the crop, using a trellis as for tomatoes but with fewer wires.

      Grafting It is recommended that whip grafting be tried once the grower is able to master the cleft method. The nursery environment would have to be good, with equal size of stock and scion. With grafting clips, rain and overhead watering is excluded until the tissue has healed. In a week or so the clips can be removed. Grafting is more suitable for smaller growers who want a second crop from the one planting. Growers who aim to pick the first crop only before ploughing in would find grafting of less value. If tuber moth is normally a problem on seedling eggplant, it can be worse on the grafted plant. Most of the points covered in this article would also apply to tomatoes. Anyone interested in trying grafting would be encouraged to try giant devil’s fig (Solanum hispidum – beware the thorns) as well as wild tobacco tree (Solanum mauritianum). These would have potential as rootstocks if their resistance to wilt is as good as devil’s fig. The amount of suckering from these plants is unknown but it would be a bonus if they sucker less. Devil’s fig tends to be more adaptable to different soils in the wild than the other two.

    • Luffas  If you want a soft sponge, pick the luffa while its green.  If you want a tougher quality, wait till the outer skin yellows and dries out.  Ref: John Kufrovich

      The bigger ones will be tougher and make good luffas; the new little ones should be good in stir-fries. There are lots of Google sites on making luffa sponges.  http://www.groovygreen.com/groove/?p=689      Ref:  Stephen

    • Pumpkin Seeds 

      Adrian  We use the seeds to make a nice snack. We simply put a little salt on them, then pan fry them with a little bit of oil till slightly brown. They are a really good crunchy snack! No need to peel them, they’re fine as is. Harvesting around 60kg of pumpkins this year means we get plenty of pre dinner snacks!

      Jason   I have never hulled my pumpkin seeds either when roasting them in the oven. Generally I put them on a tray after having cooked something else and just let the residual heat bake them. As for pepitas, they are from a specific kind of pumpkin I believe.

      Diane  I make similar but I use dukkah seasoning instead as there are many different dukkah mixes to suit every taste – enjoy them with wine/beer instead of nuts etc. They only take a short time in the oven to puff up.

    Citrus Questions & Answers by Ian Tolley

    Print this entry

    Q. At the hardware chain store I observe many citrus trees budded onto Swingle citrumelo rootstock. Is this an appropriate rootstock for Adelaide Plains & Hills soil?

    A. No! Refer to my review report. If you want to, it can be put on the website.

    Q. In your citrus trees you recommend the grafting / budding union to be 25-30 cm above the soil / potting media level. Why is this important?

    A. Avoiding Phytophthora & splashing infections up from the soil and to retain a smooth bud union.

    Q. In your writings on citrus varieties & rootstock combinations you mention that budding/grafting Imperial mandarin onto Poncirus Trifoliata is incompatible.

    A. Causes over cropping and severe benching. Use an Inter-stock for P.tri.

    Q. Are there any other variety/rootstock combinations to avoid?

    A. Too many to mention actually. Refer to my booklet Citrus – A Gardener’s Guide (Page 31)

    Q. Why do the majority of citrus trees that come into Adelaide garden centres ignore the identification of rootstock i.e. no tick in any box?

    A. Sloppiness & ignorance!

    Q. If my soil were basically a clay loam of average pH between 7.5 & 8, what would you recommend I use as a rootstock for citrus trees?

    A. Clay loams-citranges. pH7.5 & 8 is alkaline – Cleopatra mandarin.

    Q. If my soil comprises of deep sands pH of 8, what rootstocks would you recommend for my citrus trees?

    A. Without limestone, there is no limit to the range on deep sands.

    Q. A well-known horticulturalist asserted that Citrange & Swingle rootstocks, being non-dwarfing, were not appropriate for use as rootstocks for growing citrus varieties in large tubs. Is this correct?

    A. No!

    Q. Does it matter what rootstocks you use for large pots/tubs?

    A. No! The tub limits the rootstock growth. It is more important to relate rootstock/scion compatibility and produce good fruit quality.

    Q. The citrus trees in macro pots in your collection are irrigated by pulse irrigation. This maintains soil/potting media moisture levels at close to field capacity, which for surface rooted trees is no doubt ideal. If you had your citrus trees in Adelaide & were relying on mains water with its associated restrictions how would you go about irrigating them? Is there a way to arrange emitters so to optimise irrigation for citrus trees whether in the ground or in tubs?

    A. In ground, use a simple probe. With tubs, watch for the amount of drainage to decide. This is a very large question area requiring far more detail.

    Q. Many of the citrus trees in your collection are in macro pots. From the time you pot them up how many years on average do citrus trees continue in that potting media before you need to re-pot them again?

    A. 10 to 40 years depending on the quality of the substrate. (Fertilization can always be mediated from the surface. eg substrate + fertilizers = media).

    Q. In potting up citrus trees into macro pots I understand you use a 9-month slow release fertiliser completely mixed in the potting media plus zeolite.

    A. Yes. The Zeolite binds fertilizers in the media allowing sustained root uptake.

    Q. Obviously you again apply fertiliser at the start of the growing season. Is this still a 9-month slow release prill this time applied at the surface?

    A. No, the roots are now developed, so I assess the nitrogen level by leaf size and colour, use appropriate amounts of chicken pellets + foliar mixes. (See my list emailed to the RFS.)

    Q. If planting a collection of four citrus trees in the ground; for example a Lisbon lemon; a Washington Navel orange; a Lemonade tree & an Emperor mandarin, what distances would you be planting these apart?

    A. My questions are – how much space is available, are you determined to practise a regular pruning programme for the first year, and what is the direction of the sun to the area? Email the question & I can provide more solutions.

    Q. In your opinion what are the highlights/favourites of your collection?

    A. None really, I like each of the eating ones when they are ripe, and all of the blossom varieties in their seasons.

    Q. Who has the best Desert Lime (citrus glauca)?

    A. That sounds like a competitive question like ‘mine’s better than yours.’ I have worked with Paul Tardieu out of Pt. Augusta for some years now and I think he has selected one that he says comes from years of testing and it is good for condiments. It is available from my collection as a grafted plant in a 70mm tube.

    Q. The main citrus rootstock seeds are polyembronic. How do you, in practice, distinguish nucellar seedlings from sexual seedlings?

    A. I have brought a selection of zygotic or off-type seedlings as an illustration for one rootstock variety only. Everyone is different and I am including more detailed comments about this issue in my forthcoming citrus manual “Commonsense citrus”.

    Q. What effect has last November’s heatwave had on this year’s citrus crop?

    A.  In terms of fruit numbers, disastrous, in remaining fruit sizes, fantastic. It illustrates an important story about regular fruit thinning, particularly for home gardens.

    Q. On many of your citrus trees in macro-pots I observed inarching with Flying Dragon (Poncirus Trifoliata var. Monstrosa) seedlings. These from memory were citrus varieties that originally were budded/grafted onto Trifoliata rootstocks. How old were these citrus trees before they required these inarching grafts?

    A. I think you are referring to the Kumquats. They were mistakenly budded in my previous nursery next door some six years earlier and were about to be thrown out, so I was “given” them by the new management as I thought I had a solution. I had spare 6year old Flying Dragon seedlings in one litre tubes, so I planted them next to each stock in the tubs and a year later, inarched above the now very restricted union. This has been totally successful and the combination is thriving. I first read about the technique 50 years ago in a small illustrated original report I treasure, from horticulturalists bringing new cultivars back to the USA in the early 1900’s. I tried it successfully some 40 years ago and have enjoyed using it successfully ever since.

    Q. Does this suggest a delayed incompatibility with citrus varieties budded/grafted onto Poncirus Trifoliata? Does this happen on other rootstocks?

    A. By their very nature, physical mismatches develop slowly and I have observed many examples over the decades. There are examples where disease sensitivity causes incompatibility such as oranges on sour orange rootstock where Tristeza virus is present. Sensitivity to Exocortis virus can also be a problem. General disease problem solutions are to use treated and indexed material and avoiding known sensitive combinations. Wayne Wyett lives at Yundi close to Mt. Compass. He reports very little frost on a sloping site next to a dam, but he does have cold winters.

    Q. Can I grow Blood Oranges and Limes on this site?

    A. Blood oranges require high summer heat and a lot of accumulative heat units to develop good colour internally and externally. They need cold winters as well as dry humidity. There are only a few places on earth that produce an ideal climate like Geraldton in WA and the areas surrounding the Mediterranean within a very few kilometres from the sea. On one of my visits to this region I asked an Italian grower about even colour each year and he smiled and said “I wish” So try, but don’t be disappointed about the colour, and remember the cultivar was a mutation from a Valencia so the fruit is still edible. Tahitian lime is tropical and should not be grown in cold climates. I have Rangpur, Kusaie and the NT lime which are far more adaptable, much more cold tolerant, crop year round, and don’t drop their crop as soon as they colour like Tahitian, and all are good for fish garnishing.

    Summary from Ian:  My answers here are, of necessity, very brief. If they don’t provide sufficient detail to satisfy your need, email me on ist@riverland.net.au and I will endeavour to satisfy your interest, given a little leeway in time.

    Sheryl:   Ian lives in South Australia and is about to publish a book called “Commonsense Citrus”.  Will let you know when it is available.

    Weeds

    Print this entry

    Sheryl:  This talk was taped by member Ted Newton who attended Nimbin’s Open House and Garden back in 2013. Led by wild food expert Peter Hardwick, this tour took you around the back streets of Nimbin. Many thanks to Annette McFarlane for typing it up. Edited by Peter and myself.

    Peter   Many modern illnesses are often a problem because of modern diet and if we get wild food phytochemicals back into our diet we may be able to treat chronic illness like high blood pressure, inflammation and cholesterol.

    The enemy of the urban food forager is the whipper snipper! An unmown path is a bountiful thing with the biggest range of wild foods! One of my favourite tricks when I was young was picking hibiscus and nasturtium flowers when wandering the streets and eating them to shock my friends.

    Vary your diet
    It’s interesting to look at the diet of some of the preserved bodies of people who have been dug up (eg the Bog man of Denmark – 5000 years old). His last meal was a mixture of 46 different food ingredients. One of the strategies that people can take from this is to eat a range of different things rather than big helpings of one thing. Feasts did occur seasonally (if they came across a bountiful mulberry tree for example), but the range of wild greens that they ate, were often very mixed and not just a single ingredient.

    Some were eaten raw and also cooked as stews and wild seeds were mixed into breads. The boiling process with cooking greens often helps to lower toxin levels to a tolerable/safe level.  As a back-up, we also we have the liver to detoxify plant toxins.

    Some vegetables can be eaten raw like milk thistle. With boiling, toxins go into the water and you discard the water. Steaming does not reduce the toxin in the same way as boiling, so if instructions say boil, make sure you boil.

    Boiling reduces alkaloid levels (especially in black nightshades). Black nightshade in Europe is used to make a cooked salad, but you need to know what you are doing. No one has really investigated them here. I do not recommend eating any black nightshade plants unless you have specific cultural knowledge (like people from Cypress or Greece) on preparation and consumption of this wild green. This is critical with toxic greens such as these.

    Black Nightshade
    The shoots of black nightshade can be eaten if boiled to remove alkaloids, but please note that steaming would not achieve the same effect. If references suggest to boil a particular wild food, be sure to boil it and do not substitute steaming.

    Carrot weed or Wild Celery
    Carrot weed has a really good flavour, but like all weeds it can be bitter following long periods of dry weather.  Harsh growing conditions can make the flavour a little bit stronger.  It is really rich in flavour and nutrients. This introduced weed is rich in good phyto-chemicals and has anti-cancer properties. You can eat the roots, flowers and seed heads of carrot weed. Chop it up in scrambled eggs or add it to salads as an alternative to parsley.

    Chickweed
    Chickweed is tenacious and I love it. I use it in salad and also cook with it. Environment will affect how it grows. There are three types of chickweed, Tropical chickweed (glaucous green) is poisonous, but medicinal. Mouse-eared and common chickweed are edible.  Scarlet pimpernel looks like chickweed but is poisonous.

    Clover
    Nice to add to a salad, (flowers and leaves), with sour thistle and celery and nasturtiums and chickweed. But look out and avoid any black mould on leaves when you are harvest.

    Dandelion
    Dandelion has anticancer properties. There is sound scientific research to support this. It is a fantastic medicinal herb. It is a bit bitter, but you can eat them raw. You can also cook it. Dandelion has a single flower stem and the cat’s ear has multiple flower heads. Cat’s ear leaf is also more coarse and hairy. That is how you can tell the difference between them.

    Dock
    Yellow curled dock is a great plant. The seed heads are like little hearts. Swamp dock is lower growing. All docks are edible, but all contain soluble oxalates, so boil them up and the oxalates will go into the water. They have found the seed of docks in prehistoric man. Was it just contaminated in their spelt or other grains?  Some people seem to think that it was deliberately included. The seeds are very high in tannins – including quercitin that you buy from the chemist as a supplement. It is probably in the leaves as well.

    Docks have three uses – roots used as medicine, leaves as a spinach (boiled for about 5 minutes) and the seed/seed heads you can mix with your bread or in a pancake. It gives astringency to the bread. It reduces your blood sugar spikes. If you are oxalate sensitive do not eat docks. The other way of counter this is to eat oxalate containing foods in combination with dairy (for example weed spinach rolls with cheese).

    Throw dock seeds into a coffee grinder and it grinds it into a fine brown flour. It is more husk than seed, but it is more of what we need and a really good food source.

    Yellow dock root can be roasted and used as a coffee substitute.

    Swamp dock is the native dock. It is easy to see the difference between the leaves. The seed heads on this attach to your clothing when they are mature. Yellow dock seeds do not stick to your clothing. This plant contains an anticancer compound in both the leaves and the roots called musizin. The roots of swamp dock are yellow. It seems to have a lower oxalic acid compound, but do not eat a lot of it raw (it can give you nausea). Boil or blanch the leaves.  Use the roots as a medicinal.

    Farmer’s Friend
    Some people say this is edible but research from early last year indicates it may contain a nasty alkaloid toxin – we are waiting for follow-up research to clarify this. Farmer’s friend does not have a huge history as a food plant. It is used in South America as a medicinal. Comfrey has a similar toxin and should not be eaten. Some things are toxic no matter how little you eat ( comfrey and bracken shoots). As we learn more about phyto-chemistry in wild foods, we discover more about these plants and our ideas of on what can be eaten will change.

    Madiera Vine
    It is a local weed and you can eat it. It is related to Ceylon spinach. It is a garden escapee. Be careful when harvesting, never spread it around or it may escape into your garden or the surrounding environment. That is a risk with some of these weeds.

    It is said to have been used as a laxative. Cook it up/boil to prepare. As a general practice I don’t like to eat huge quantities of a single wild green species. My strategy is to eat a mixture, so that you do not get too much of any one thing. Eat a range of things not big helpings of one ingredient.

    I don’t eat Madiera vine raw. I boil it lightly, drain away the liquid and eat it as spinach. There is recent research from Indonesia indicating that Madiera vine is safe.

    Paddy’s lucerne or Sida
    This plant has medicinal properties and mallow-like qualities (it comes from the mallow family). It stops dysentery. It is strong and bitter in the dry weather and has a yellow flower. You can eat the leaves raw in salads. Most of the sida species are safe to eat.

    Shamrock (Oxalis)  It is sour. You may have eaten them as kids. They contain oxalis acid. Just do not eat too much because of the soluble oxalate levels.

    Sow thistle
    One of my favourites.  You see this around a lot and it is common in gardens. It is a great plant and really nice in salads. The taste is similar to chicory or lettuce. When it is younger the leaves are quite big and lush. It has a yellow flower. It is a really good candidate for domestication (perhaps better than lettuce). It can be a bit bitter, but it is nice mixed in with other salad greens. Be careful with the daisy family, it’s notorious for having sneaky toxins. Do not eat thick head weed. Bracken fern was once thought to be edible. Then they found out that consumption of bracken fern fiddle was carcinogenic, even though this was a traditional part of the Japanese diet. That is why you need to be cautious. Some of the references on what is safe to eat from 20 years ago and now out of date.

    Wild mustard/wild brassica
    You can eat the yellow flowers on wild brassicas. Wild radish is strongly flavoured. They grow wild in some areas and become naturalised on roadsides. They are full of glucosinolates. Wild brassicas have these compounds in much higher amounts than cultivated greens. It is best to boil brassicas really well.

    Nasturtium
    Nasturtium has a multitude of uses and is a great garden escapee. Throw it in salads. Seeds can be pickled as capers. They are yummy. I like pickling them in bush lemon juice and salt and some spices (like Dorrigo pepper)

    Shepards Purse – This is in the brassica family. It is a small, subtle herb and comes up a lot in cooking in Celtic/European history along with yarrow. It is used for food and medicine. You can eat the leaves and the seeds. I have not tried the seeds.

    Lots of the weed seeds were distributed via ballast bags filled and pack into boats. The soil was tipped out at the docks and that is how the weeds were spread.

    Plaintain
    There is a broad leaf plantain and a narrow leaf one. They are both edible anti-inflammatories.  They were a staple of Celtic people. They have a mushroom flavour and a slight bitterness. I chop it up mix it with the leaves of clover and dock, boil them put them into a pie or a stew. The younger leaves are more tender. Just use a small amount. They are said to lower cholesterol. Psyllium husks comes from a type of plantain. Comment from participant – ‘The narrow leaf plantain is traditionally used as a poultice’.

    Weeds to avoid
    Morning glory is toxic (even though wallabies do eat it). Be cautious about bindii – I do not know precisely the toxicologically, but it is related to things like hemlock, so be cautious.  Watch out for fungus on grasses. Wheat grass is edible, but not all grasses are edible. Be careful with jute and do not eat kale every day, especially in drinks. The availability of phytochemicals is much higher in a green smoothie. Try sow thistle in a green smoothie but do not use yellow dock. It is too high in phytochemicals. The potency is so high.

    Fruit Tree Tips

    Print this entry

    • Fruit does seem to improve with age of trees in many species. This is why it’s important not to discard a tree just because you don’t like its first year’s offerings. I would guess that in a young tree it saps a lot of reserves in the plant to produce the fruit so perhaps that is why they are not so good. As the plant gets older and has more reserves it can put more nutrients into each fruit. Another factor is over production and thinning of fruits. If a tree makes too many fruits the amount of nutrients will not be as high per fruit.  Ref: Oscar – Hawaii
       
    • Trees that won’t fruit.  Some trees need a dry period to initiate flowering. Ref: Oscar – Hawaii
       
    • Some Myths Worth Busting    by Anne Raver    ref:  New York Times How does Tony Avent, the horticultural mythbuster, grow so many plants successfully in his garden? Rule No. 1: he uses the same mix of 40 percent native soil, dug on his own land, and 60 percent compost for every plant. ”The soil for every plant we have is prepared exactly the same, whether it’s a pitcher plant or an agave,” Mr. Avent said. ”Every square inch of these gardens has the same pH, between 6.2 and 6.5, which is ideal for almost every plant. The idea that this plant needs 5 and this one needs 8 is just not true.” Succulents like agaves and cacti, however, need excellent drainage, so for these, he tills a foot of PermaTill (slate that has been heated to 2,000 degrees, so that it expands and becomes porous) into mounded beds of his regular soil and compost mix. A full soil analysis, for nutrients as well as fungi-bacteria ratios, will tell you what elements are missing. ”Our gardens are on sand, so we add greensand,” he said, which is mined along the East Coast and is high in potassium. Gardeners with clay soil might have to add rock phosphate. But never add sand to lighten heavy soil, he advises. And don’t add rocks to the bottom of a pot to improve drainage: ”Water only runs through materials of similar porosity, so if you put rocks in the bottom of a pot you’re actually making the drainage worse.” Mr. Avent said he stopped using pesticides and chemical fertilizer in his outdoor gardens 20 years ago and was amazed at the improvement in his soil and plants. Conventional wisdom says that plants can’t tell the difference between a chemical fertilizer and an organic one, he noted, ”but the microbes do — the fertilizer was burning up the compost.” After he switched to organics, he said, ”it took about a year before everything started jumping. Our insect problems disappeared. It was just amazing.”
    • Some fruit trees have strong apical dominance and young trees can become “leggy” with poor side limb development. One can reduce the apical dominance in this case, or, in cases where limbs are broken off by accident, by cutting off the auxin flow above side buds that one wishes to stimulate. This is often done by orchardists for young trees: Select the bud along the leader (stem) where one desires a side branch to develop, or where one already is present, but growing too weakly. With a sharp knife, make a horizontal cut about a half-inch above it, just deep enough to break the cambium and only about a quarter of the way around the stem. This breaks the flow of auxins that had suppressed its growth. Later, when a bud breaks, it can be trained or pruned as needed. Occasionally, strong apical dominance is advantageous, as in the “Ballerina” apple trees. These trees are intended to be grown in small gardens and their strong apical dominance combined with a dwarfing rootstock gives a compact narrow tree with very short fruiting side branches.  Ref:  Wikipedia